<p>The three-dimensional placement of atoms and chemical bonds within <a data-lesson="first-organic-molecules" data-subject="biology" data-tutorial="evolution-overview" href="https://app.ulearngo.com/biology/evolution-overview/first-organic-molecules">organic molecules</a> is central to understanding their chemistry. Molecules that share the same chemical formula but differ in the placement (structure) of their atoms and/or chemical bonds are known as <strong>isomers. </strong></p>
<h2><strong>Structural Isomers</strong></h2>
<p><strong>Structural isomers</strong> (like butane and isobutene shown in the <a href="#attachment_95073">image below</a>) differ in the placement of their covalent bonds. Both molecules have four carbons and ten hydrogens (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>). However, the different arrangement of the atoms within the molecules leads to differences in their chemical properties. For example, due to their different chemical properties, people use butane as a fuel for cigarette lighters and torches. On the other hand, isobutene is suited for use as a refrigerant and a propellant in spray cans.</p>
<div class="wp-caption alignnone" id="attachment_95073" style="width: 725px"><a href="https://data.ulearngo.com/assets/fb5144bc-4544-4cd4-af79-a9b62331dd90"><img alt="isomers" class="wp-image-95073 size-full" height="977" src="https://data.ulearngo.com/assets/fb5144bc-4544-4cd4-af79-a9b62331dd90" width="725"/></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Molecules that have the same number and type of atoms arranged differently are called isomers. (a) Structural isomers have a different covalent arrangement of atoms. (b) Geometric isomers have a different arrangement of atoms around a double bond. (c) Enantiomers are mirror images of each other. Image Attribution: Openstax Biology</p></div>
<h2><strong>Geometric Isomers</strong></h2>
<p><strong>Geometric isomers</strong>, on the other hand, have similar placements of their covalent bonds. However, they differ in how these bonds are made to the surrounding atoms, especially in carbon-to-carbon double bonds. In the simple molecule butene (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>), the two methyl groups (CH<sub>3</sub>) can be on either side of the double covalent bond central to the molecule, as illustrated in the <a href="#attachment_95073">image above</a>.</p>
<p>When the carbons are bound on the same side of the double bond, this is the <em data-effect="italics">cis</em> configuration. If they are on opposite sides of the double bond, it is a <em data-effect="italics">trans</em> configuration. In the <em data-effect="italics">trans</em> configuration, the carbons form a more or less linear structure, whereas the carbons in the <em data-effect="italics">cis</em> configuration make a bend (change in direction) of the carbon backbone.</p>
<h3><em>cis- </em>and <em>trans- </em>configurations in fats and oils</h3>
<p>In triglycerides (fats and oils), long carbon chains known as fatty acids may contain double bonds, which can be in either the <em data-effect="italics">cis</em> or <em data-effect="italics">trans</em> configuration, illustrated in the <a href="#attachment_95076">image below</a>. Fats with at least one double bond between carbon atoms are unsaturated fats. When some of these bonds are in the <em data-effect="italics">cis</em> configuration, the resulting bend in the carbon backbone of the chain means that triglyceride molecules cannot pack tightly, so they remain liquid (oil) at room temperature.</p>
<div class="wp-caption alignleft" id="attachment_95076" style="width: 800px"><a href="https://data.ulearngo.com/assets/84d3db31-7e90-471a-b2af-64bf9ec90e39"><img alt="space-filling-models" class="wp-image-95076 size-full" height="606" src="https://data.ulearngo.com/assets/84d3db31-7e90-471a-b2af-64bf9ec90e39" width="800"/></a><p class="wp-caption-text">D-alanine and L-alanine are examples of enantiomers or mirror images. Only the L-forms of amino acids are used to make proteins. Image Attribution: OpenStax Biology</p></div>
<p>On the other hand, triglycerides with <em data-effect="italics">trans</em> double bonds (popularly called trans fats), have relatively linear fatty acids that are able to pack tightly together at room temperature and form solid fats. In the human diet, trans fats are linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. So, many <a data-lesson="ingestion" data-subject="biology" data-tutorial="digestive-system" href="https://app.ulearngo.com/biology/digestive-system/ingestion">food</a> manufacturers have reduced or eliminated their use in recent years. In contrast to unsaturated fats, triglycerides without double bonds between carbon atoms are called saturated fats, meaning that they contain all the hydrogen atoms available. Saturated fats are a solid at room temperature and usually of animal origin.</p>
<h2 data-type="title">Enantiomers</h2>
<p><strong>Enantiomers</strong> are molecules that share the same chemical structure and chemical bonds but differ in the three-dimensional placement of atoms so that they are mirror images.</p>
<div class="wp-caption alignnone" id="attachment_95077" style="width: 800px"><a href="https://data.ulearngo.com/assets/9c5cc263-8cf3-4a74-adc1-aa555e38f537"><img alt="enantiomers" class="size-full wp-image-95077" height="426" src="https://data.ulearngo.com/assets/9c5cc263-8cf3-4a74-adc1-aa555e38f537" width="800"/></a><p class="wp-caption-text">D-alanine and L-alanine are examples of enantiomers or mirror images. Only the L-forms of amino acids are used to make proteins. Image Attribution: OpenStax Biology</p></div>
<p>As shown in the <a href="#attachment_95077">image above</a>, an amino acid alanine example, the two structures are non-superimposable. In nature, only the L-forms of amino acids are used to make proteins. Some D forms of amino acids are seen in the cell walls of bacteria, but never in their proteins. Similarly, the D-form of glucose is the main product of <a data-lesson="photosynthesis" data-subject="biology" data-tutorial="cell-biology" href="https://app.ulearngo.com/biology/cell-biology/photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and the L-form of the molecule is rarely seen in nature.</p>

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Organic Molecules and Isomers

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Organic Molecules and Isomers

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