Elasticity: Stress and Strain

We now move from consideration of forces that affect the motion of an object (such as friction and drag) to those that affect an object’s shape. If a bulldozer pushes a car into a wall, the car will not move but it will noticeably change shape. A change in shape due to the application of a force is a deformation. Even very small forces are known to cause some deformation. For small deformations, two important characteristics are observed. First, the object returns to its original shape when the force is removed—that is, the deformation is elastic for small deformations. Second, the size of the deformation is proportional to the force—that is, for small deformations, Hooke’s law is obeyed. In equation form, Hooke’s law is given by

$F=k\Delta L,$

where $\Delta L$ is the amount of deformation (the change in length, for example) produced by the force $F$, and $k$ is a proportionality constant that depends on the shape and composition of the object and the direction of the force. Note that this force is a function of the deformation $\Delta L$ —it is not constant as a kinetic friction force is. Rearranging this to

$\Delta L=\frac{F}{k}$

makes it clear that the deformation is proportional to the applied force. The figure below shows the Hooke’s law relationship between the extension $\Delta L$ of a spring or of a human bone. For metals or springs, the straight line region in which Hooke’s law pertains is much larger. Bones are brittle and the elastic region is small and the fracture abrupt. Eventually a large enough stress to the material will cause it to break or fracture. Tensile strength is the breaking stress that will cause permanent deformation or fracture of a material.

Hooke’s Law

$F=\mathrm{k\Delta L},$

$\Delta L=\frac{F}{k}$

$Line graph of change in length versus applied force. The line has a constant positive slope from the origin in the region where Hooke’s law is obeyed. The slope then decreases, with a lower, still positive slope until the end of the elastic region. The slope then increases dramatically in the region of permanent deformation until fracturing occurs.$

A graph of deformation $\Delta L$ versus applied force $F$. The straight segment is the linear region where Hooke’s law is obeyed. The slope of the straight region is $\frac{1}{k}$. For larger forces, the graph is curved but the deformation is still elastic— $\Delta L$ will return to zero if the force is removed. Still greater forces permanently deform the object until it finally fractures. The shape of the curve near fracture depends on several factors, including how the force $F$ is applied. Note that in this graph the slope increases just before fracture, indicating that a small increase in $F$ is producing a large increase in $L$ near the fracture.

The proportionality constant $k$ depends upon a number of factors for the material. For example, a guitar string made of nylon stretches when it is tightened, and the elongation $\Delta L$ is proportional to the force applied (at least for small deformations). Thicker nylon strings and ones made of steel stretch less for the same applied force, implying they have a larger $k$ (see the figure below). Finally, all three strings return to their normal lengths when the force is removed, provided the deformation is small. Most materials will behave in this manner if the deformation is less than about 0.1% or about 1 part in ${\text{10}}^{3}$.

Diagram of weight w attached to each of three guitar strings of initial length L zero hanging vertically from a ceiling. The weight pulls down on the strings with force w. The ceiling pulls up on the strings with force w. The first string of thin nylon has a deformation of delta L due to the force of the weight pulling down. The middle string of thicker nylon has a smaller deformation. The third string of thin steel has the smallest deformation.

The same force, in this case a weight ($w$), applied to three different guitar strings of identical length produces the three different deformations shown as shaded segments. The string on the left is thin nylon, the one in the middle is thicker nylon, and the one on the right is steel.

Stretch Yourself a Little

How would you go about measuring the proportionality constant $k$ of a rubber band? If a rubber band stretched 3 cm when a 100-g mass was attached to it, then how much would it stretch if two similar rubber bands were attached to the same mass—even if put together in parallel or alternatively if tied together in series?

We now consider three specific types of deformations: changes in length (tension and compression), sideways shear (stress), and changes in volume. All deformations are assumed to be small unless otherwise stated.

Elasticity: Stress and Strain

Elasticity: Stress and Strain

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